Lucan

Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, known in English as Lucan, was a Roman poet of the Neronian age, born in 39 at Corduba in the province of Hispania Baetica (modern Córdoba, Spain). He came from a wealthy equestrian family of Spanish origin that had already produced two major literary figures: his grandfather Seneca the Elder, a historian and writer on rhetoric, and his uncle Seneca the Younger, the Stoic philosopher and tragedian who served as tutor and later adviser to the emperor Nero. Lucan’s father, Marcus Annaeus Mela, was the younger brother of Seneca the Younger and preferred to remain an eques rather than enter the Senate. As a child Lucan was brought to Rome, where the family’s proximity to the imperial court shaped his education and early prospects.

In Rome Lucan received the standard elite training in grammar and rhetoric and later continued his studies in Athens. Upon returning to the capital he enjoyed the favor of Nero, who was himself an aspiring poet and performer. Lucan was advanced rapidly: he held the quaestorship before the usual age and was co-opted into the college of augurs. He first came to public notice with a poem in praise of Nero, possibly associated with the Neronia. For a time emperor and poet appeared as mutual admirers. Lucan married Polla Argentaria, a woman of literary interests who later commissioned commemorative verse in his honor. Ancient testimony does not record whether the couple had children.

Lucan’s reputation rests on the Bellum Civile, an unfinished epic in ten books treating the civil war of 49–45 BC between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, conventionally called the Pharsalia after the battle of Pharsalus. The poem rejects much of the mythological apparatus of earlier Latin epic, emphasizes human agency and fortune, and is marked by rhetorical brilliance, sententious moralizing, and graphic depictions of violence. Its political tone is hostile to Caesarism and sympathetic to the Republican cause, with Cato of Utica presented as a Stoic exemplar. Other works attributed to Lucan, including an Iliacon, a Catachthonion, and various occasional poems, survive only in fragments or titles. Contemporary and later critics regarded him as a leading voice of Silver Latin poetry, though some, such as Quintilian, noted a tendency toward excess.

Relations with Nero deteriorated, according to the biographical tradition, because the emperor envied Lucan’s talent and forbade him to recite or publish. In 65 Lucan joined the conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso against Nero. After the plot was betrayed, Lucan was detained. Tacitus records that under interrogation Lucan named his mother Acilia among others, hoping to obtain mercy; she was not condemned. Nero denied him a pardon and compelled him to commit suicide. Lucan died in Rome in 65, at the age of twenty-five, by having his veins opened; the tradition holds that he died reciting lines of his own poetry that described a similar death. Polla Argentaria recovered his remains and kept his memory alive. Statius later wrote a birthday poem for Lucan addressed to her.

Lucan was a pagan Roman and was never the object of Christian cult. He has no feast day, was not beatified or canonized, and is not a patron saint of any place or cause. His Pharsalia, however, circulated widely in late antiquity and the medieval schools, was used by Dante, who ranked Lucan with Homer, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid among the great poets, and continued to be read and imitated in the Renaissance and after. The principal ancient sources for his life are a brief Suetonian vita, a later life attributed to Vacca, notices in Tacitus’s Annals, and incidental remarks in Statius, Martial, and Quintilian.