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Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli was born in Rome in 1876 into a family of the Roman black nobility long associated with service to the Holy See. His father, Filippo Pacelli, was a consistorial advocate and dean of the lawyers of the Sacred Roman Rota; his mother was Virginia Graziosi. Educated at the Liceo Ennio Quirino Visconti, the Pontifical Gregorian University, the University of Rome, and the Pontifical Roman Athenaeum of Saint Apollinare, he took doctorates in theology and in both civil and canon law. He was ordained a priest in 1899 and entered the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, beginning a career that placed him at the center of Vatican diplomacy for the next four decades.

As apostolic nuncio, first to Bavaria from 1917 and subsequently to Germany, Pacelli observed the fall of the German Empire, the revolutionary crises of 1918 and 1919, and the instability of the Weimar Republic. He negotiated concordats with Bavaria and Prussia and developed a lasting preoccupation with the legal protection of the Church under secular and totalitarian states. Recalled to Rome, he was created a cardinal in 1929 and appointed Secretary of State by Pope Pius XI. In that office he concluded the Lateran Pacts of 1929 that resolved the Roman Question between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy, and he was the principal Vatican negotiator of the 1933 Reichskonkordat with National Socialist Germany, an agreement whose later meaning and consequences remain disputed among historians.

Elected pope on 2 March 1939, Pacelli took the name Pius XII. His pontificate opened under the threat of a general European war. During the Second World War he maintained a policy of public diplomatic reserve while authorizing, through nunciatures, religious communities, and Vatican institutions, various forms of assistance to refugees and to Jews. The extent, motives, and moral adequacy of his public silence concerning the Holocaust have been the subject of intense and still unresolved scholarly controversy. After 1945 he confronted the establishment of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, the persecution of Catholics behind the Iron Curtain, and the reconstruction of Church life in the West.

In doctrine and devotion Pius XII issued a series of major encyclicals. Mystici Corporis Christi in 1943 developed the theology of the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ. Divino Afflante Spiritu in the same year opened Catholic biblical studies more fully to historical-critical methods. Mediator Dei in 1947 encouraged active liturgical participation. In 1950 he defined the dogma of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus, the only solemn exercise of papal infallibility in the twentieth century. Humani Generis in 1950 cautioned against certain philosophical and theological currents. He also promoted the missions, scientific research, and the use of modern means of communication.

Pius XII died at the papal villa of Castel Gandolfo in October 1958 after a prolonged decline in health and was buried in the Vatican Grottoes beneath Saint Peter's Basilica. His cause of beatification was introduced, and he was later declared Venerable; the process remains incomplete and continues to be entangled with historical debate over his wartime record. His long pontificate left a deep mark on twentieth-century Catholicism through the further centralization of papal authority and through theological and liturgical developments that helped prepare the way for the Second Vatican Council.

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